Which of the Following Vitamins Will Most Likely Need to Be Supplemented to Beef Cows

• Introduction
• Macrominerals
• Microminerals Vitamins
• Selecting a Mineral Supplement
• Factors Affecting Mineral Intake
• Bioavailability
• Identifying a Mineral Deficiency
• Copper Deficiency
• Summary
• Literature Cited

Introduction

Beef cattle require a number of minerals for optimal growth and reproduction. Selecting the correct mineral supplement is important for maintaining healthy animals, and optimal growth and reproduction. Since loftier-quality forages and/or grains can replenish a large portion of the required minerals, producers should select supplements that volition meet animal requirements and avoid excesses that reduce profits and atomic number 82 to unnecessary mineral excretion. Minerals not provided by feed can be easily and inexpensively supplied with a simple mineral supplement. A good mineral program for brood cows should price well-nigh $10 to $xx per year. This message provides information on basic mineral nutrition for most provender and feeding programs in Georgia.

Minerals essential to cattle nutrition are classified as either macrominerals or microminerals, depending on whether they are constitute at levels greater than or less than 100 parts per million (ppm) in the animal's body.

Macrominerals

The macrominerals beef cattle require include calcium, magnesium, phosphorus, potassium, sodium, chlorine and sulfur. Macromineral requirements and maximum tolerable levels for beefiness cattle are shown in Table i.

Calcium and Phosphorus

Calcium and phosphorus are the major mineral components of the skeleton. 90-nine percent of total body calcium and 80 percentage of full body phosphorus are stored in the bones. The skeletal stores of calcium and phosphorus are used to run into brusk-term dietary inadequacies. Long-term deficiencies of either tin cause bones to weaken and fifty-fifty intermission.

Calcium and phosphorus also play important roles in other bodily functions. A decrease in either or both tin cause a decrease in weight gain and/or a subtract in efficiency of gain. During lactation, low amounts of either will reduce milk production. A superior milking moo-cow requires three times more calcium than a non-lactating cow. A phosphorus deficiency can filibuster puberty in heifers and can filibuster mature beefiness cows from returning to estrus following parturition. Cattle as well need correct amounts of calcium for the nervous and muscular systems to role properly.

Proper utilization of calcium and phosphorus is affected not only by the amount of each mineral fed, but likewise by their ratio. The optimum Ca:P ratio is about 1.5:1, with a range of 1:1 to 4:one being satisfactory. In some high-concentrate rations, ratios college than ii:1 have been successful.

Most grasses are adequate in calcium. Legumes such as alfalfa, peanut, clover and soybean hay are good sources of calcium, but corn silage and sorghum silage are poor sources of calcium. In general, most concentrates are relatively poor calcium sources. Ane exception is citrus lurid, which is relatively high in calcium concentration (1.ix percent). Corn, corn past-product feeds and sorghum grain are particularly low in calcium content, and cattle fed grain or corn silage-based diets require calcium supplementation.

Nearly forages are low in phosphorus, particularly late in the growing flavour. Cattle are more probable to exist phosphorus-deficient during the winter, when they frequently subsist on dry out forages. Concentrates contain moderate to loftier concentrations of phosphorus. Protein supplements such as cottonseed meal and soybean repast contain moderate concentrations, whereas many past-product feeds such as distillers grains, corn gluten feed and wheat middlings, accept high phosphorus concentrations.

Sodium and Chlorine

Sodium and chlorine (salt) provide for the proper function of the nervous and muscular systems. They aid regulate trunk pH and the corporeality of water retained in the torso. A deficiency of these elements causes loss of appetite and inefficient weight gains or body weight loss. Sodium is unremarkably deficient in diets, but chlorine levels are normally adequate. Both minerals are present in soft tissues and fluids and there is very little storage of these elements, then a constant, daily source of sodium and chlorine must be provided. Cattle will voluntarily consume more salt when forage is young and succulent than when it matures. Silage-fed cattle will swallow more salt than those fed hay, and consumption is higher in cattle fed high-roughage diets than in those on loftier-concentrate diets. As a rule of thumb, cattle consume 0.005 to 0.010 per centum of their body weight as salt daily. For instance, a mature cow weighing 1,200 pounds would consume 0.06 to 0.12 pounds (1,200 x 0.00005 = 0.6), or 1.0 to ane.nine ounces of salt daily.

Magnesium

Magnesium is essential for proper enzyme and nervous system function and for efficient carbohydrate metabolism. A magnesium deficiency is uncommon except for cows grazing lush-growth fescue or minor grain pastures during the late winter and early bound, which may cause grass tetany, a serious and sometimes fatal metabolic disorder. A high rate of nitrogen and potassium fertilization contributes to grass tetany. Excess potassium inhibits magnesium assimilation in both provender and animals. Grass tetany usually occurs following an extended period of cold atmospheric condition combined with high levels of nitrogen and potassium fertilization. Mature lactating cows are particularly susceptible to grass tetany.

Grass tetany tin ordinarily be prevented by feeding cattle a mineral mixture containing magnesium oxide. A mineral mixture containing 10 to fourteen percent magnesium consumed at 4 ounces per day should provide adequate magnesium. Adequate common salt intake is also important for preventing grass tetany. Avert using hard blocks to supplement salt when cattle are at risk for grass tetany; supply salt in a loose form to allow for acceptable common salt consumption. When grass tetany is non a risk, blocks can exist used to supplement minerals, provided trace minerals are elevated to account for lower intake of block versus loose salt minerals. Animals with grass tetany respond almost immediately to an intravenous infusion of calcium-magnesium gluconate.

Potassium

Potassium functions in acid-base balance, osmotic pressure and the amount of water retained in the body. Grasses, particularly early lush spring growth, contains adequate amounts of potassium for grazing cattle and supplementation is rarely needed. Withal, potassium may occasionally exist low in stockpiled forages or hay that was rained on prior to baling because potassium is soluble and will leach from the forage.

Sulfur

Sulfur is a function of the essential amino acids methionine and cystine, which make up protein. A sulfur deficiency in beef cattle diets is not likely to occur under normal feeding conditions. Sulfur is more likely to be in excess, which can interfere with the metabolism of copper, resulting in a copper deficiency. Likewise, backlog sulfur tin can reduce feed intake and cause a encephalon lesion condition known equally polioencephalomalacia (PEM). Certain past-products such every bit distillers grains and corn gluten feed comprise higher concentrations of sulfur, which should be taken into business relationship in ration balancing. Sulfur is often added indirectly to the mineral mix through sulfate forms of the microminerals.

Table 1. Macro mineral requirements and maximum tolerable levels for beef cattle.
Mineral	Lactating Cows	Dry Cows	Growing Calves	Maximum Tolerable Level
Calcium, %	0.31	0.eighteen	0.58	—
Magnesium, %	0.ten	0.12	0.20	0.40
Phosphorus, %	0.21	0.sixteen	0.26	—
Potassium, %	0.60	0.threescore	0.lxx	iii.0
Sodium, %	0.07	0.07	0.x	—
Sulfur, %	0.fifteen	0.xv	0.fifteen	0.xl
NRC, 1996. Adjusted from NRC. Nutrient Requirements of Beefiness Cattle, Sixth Edition.

Microminerals

Beefiness cattle require x microminerals. 7 of the 10 microminerals accept established requirements, including iron, manganese, copper, zinc, selenium, cobalt and iodine. The microminerals chromium, molybdenum and nickel practise not have an established requirement and are not normally added to mineral mixes fed to beef cattle. Only 3 of the microminerals (copper, zinc and selenium) are likely to be deficient in grazing beef cattle diets. Micromineral requirements and maximum tolerable levels for beef cattle are shown in Tabular array two.

Cobalt

Cobalt functions every bit a component of vitamin B-12, which is synthesized in the rumen past leaner. The primary deficiency symptom is loss of appetite and poor growth. Most forages in the Southeast take adequate levels of cobalt; all the same, it is usually added in the mineral mix at approximately 10 ppm to ensure no deficiencies. High-grain diets crave more cobalt than forage-based diets, and cobalt should always be included in the mineral mix when feeding grain-based diets.

Copper

Copper is the virtually common micromineral deficiency in grazing cattle. Copper is an important component of many enzyme systems essential for normal growth and evolution. Deficiency signs include reduced fertility, depressed immunity and reduced pigmentation of hair (black pilus changes to red). Dietary deficiencies can occur, but nearly deficiencies are caused by the consumption of antagonists, which reduces copper assimilation. Copper should be supplemented equally copper sulfate, tribasic copper chloride or an organic complexed form because copper oxide is very poorly absorbed.

Iodine

Iodine is an essential mineral for part of the thyroid hormones that regulate energy metabolism. The first sign of iodine deficiency is goiter in newborn calves. Iodine is rarely deficient in cow herds in the Southeast. Iodine is ordinarily supplemented as ethylenediamine dihydroidide (EDDI). The maximum legal supplementation of EDDI is 50 mg per caput per twenty-four hour period. In some instances, EDDI has been included in diets to foreclose foot rot; however, the amount of EDDI required to preclude foot rot is much college than requirements and most likely will not prevent pes rot when included at the legal maximum.

Iron

Iron is primarily required for the formation of hemoglobin. Deficiency symptoms include anemia, depressed immunity and decreased weight gains. Iron deficiency is rarely observed in grazing cattle. Iron oxide is often included in mineral mixtures, but is unavailable to the animal and serves merely as a coloring agent to give the mineral a dark red color. Iron sulfate is bachelor to the animal and should be used if iron supplementation is needed.

Manganese

Manganese is required for normal reproduction, and fetal and udder evolution. Manganese deficiency is rare and unlikely to be a problem in grazing cattle in Georgia. Manganese oxide is the nigh common course of manganese used in mineral mixes. Corn-based diets are low in manganese and supplementation is necessary when feeding these diets.

Selenium

Selenium can be deficient in some areas of Georgia. Selenium deficiency causes white muscle illness (similar to muscular dystrophy) in newborn calves. Selenium deficiency can besides cause calves to be weak at birth and increment their susceptibility to calfhood diseases like scours. Increased rates of retained placentas and poor reproductive functioning are oft observed in cows with selenium deficiencies.

Selenium is more often than not added to mineral mixtures in the class of sodium selenite. Selenium is very toxic and should be used in a premixed form only. The FDA allows selenium to be used at a level not to exceed 0.3 ppm of the dry matter in the total diet of beef cattle. In areas where deficiencies occur, use the maximum legal level. The FDA allows up to 120 ppm to be included in a salt-mineral mixture for free-option feeding. Selenium deficiency should not be a trouble if adequate amounts of selenium are consumed in the mineral supplement. However, the concentration of selenium in the supplement and the labeled intake must not outcome in a full intake of more than 3 mg per day. Thus, a mineral labeled for intake of iv ounces per head per day cannot exceed 26 ppm selenium.

Zinc

Zinc is marginal to scarce in nearly Georgia forages. Zinc is a component of many enzymes and is important for immunity, male person reproduction, and skin and hoof wellness. Cattle have a limited ability to store zinc and supplementation is always necessary. Zinc absorption is closely tied to copper assimilation, and the zinc to copper ratio should be kept at approximately 3:ane. In add-on, high levels of iron can subtract zinc absorption. Absorption of zinc decreases once the ratio of iron to zinc exceeds 2:1. Some feedlots feed supplemental zinc methionine to amend hoof health and thus better daily gains and feed efficiency.

Table ii. Micromineral Requirements and Maximum Tolerable Levels for Beef Cattle.
Mineral	Lactating Cows	Dry Cows	Growing Calves	Maximum Tolerable Level
Chromium	—	—	—	50.0
Cobalt, ppm	0.1	0.ane	0.1	10.0
Copper, ppm	ten.0	10.0	ten.0	100.0
Iodine, ppm	0.l	0.50	0.fifty	l.0
Atomic number 26, ppm	fifty.0	fifty.0	50.0	1000.0
Manganese, ppm	xx.0	40.0	xl.0	g.0
Molybdenum, ppm	—	—	—	5.0
Nickel	—	—	—	50.0
Selenium, ppm	0.10	0.10	0.10	2.0
Zinc, ppm	thirty.0	xxx.0	xxx.0	500.0
NRC, 1996. Adapted from NRC. Nutrient Requirements of Beef Cattle, Sixth Edition.

Vitamins

Vitamins are closely linked to mineral metabolism and assimilation. Vitamin A helps skin and mucous membranes stay good for you. Vitamin A requirements commonly are met by grazing fresh, green, growing grass. Oxidation deteriorates vitamin A during storage, so diets based on stored feeds should exist supplemented with vitamin A. Supplement diets with vitamin A any time the major portion is stored feeds.

Vitamin A tin can exist added to a mineral mix in a stabilized form to forbid oxidation. The minimum amount should be approximately 120,000 International Units (IU) of vitamin A per pound of mineral. Vitamin A can also be added to the grain mixture to provide 15,000 to 30,000 IU per head per solar day, depending on individual requirements. An alternative method is to inject 1.5 million IU subcutaneously if a source of dietary citamin A is not bachelor for 60 to ninety days, although unnecessary injections are discouraged in consideration of National Beefiness Quality Assurance guidelines.

Vitamin D aids the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the intestine and their deposition in the bone matrix. Signs of vitamin D deficiency are similar to a calcium or phosphorus deficiency. Virtually cattle exposed to direct sunlight synthesize enough vitamin D, but cattle in a covered solitude feedlot may need supplemental vitamin D.

Vitamin E is usually present in the nutrition in sufficient quantities for all classes of cattle; still, a selenium deficiency could lead to an apparent deficiency of vitamin E. Vitamin Eastward tin can be helpful for short-term periods of stress that may occur when calves are co-mingled and transported at weaning.

Other essential vitamins are normally nowadays in acceptable quantities in the diet or are synthesized by bacteria in the rumen.

Selecting a Mineral Supplement

The average mineral content of several forages, grains and past-production feeds are shown in Table iii. The actual mineral content of feeds, especially forages and by-products, volition vary, so all feeds should be tested for actual mineral content. Still, the mineral concentrations can be used as a guide when choosing a mineral supplement to complement a particular feed ingredient. In addition, an instance mineral mix for lactating cows is provided in Tabular array iv. The calcium to phosphorus ratio in almost mineral mixes should be ii:1 to 4:i. Phosphorus supplementation may not exist needed if forages have been fertilized with poultry litter or when feeding loftier-phosphorus feeds such every bit cottonseed, cottonseed meal, distillers grains or corn gluten feed. Salt is not stored in the animate being's body and should be made bachelor continuously. Salt is the merely mineral that cattle crave, and salt-deprived cattle volition often consume clay or woods. A mineral mix should contain 15 to 22 percent common salt. Magnesium should be at least fourteen percent in the mineral mix when grass tetany is a concern. Also, closely examine mineral tags for addition of unnecessary products such every bit B-vitamins (thiamine, riboflavin, folic acid). These vitamins are normally not needed by grazing cattle because they are produced by the rumen bacteria and increase the cost of the supplement.

The most important points to consider when purchasing minerals are calcium to phosphorus levels, salt level, bioavailability (particularly copper), level of "trace minerals" in the supplement, and additives. You can acquire a lot about the mineral you are feeding by studying the mineral tag for a few minutes. In addition, minerals are often used to deliver products such as ionophores (Rumensin, Bovatec) and antibiotics (chlortetracycline, GainPro). Advisedly read label instructions when using medicated mineral mixes to ensure adequate intake and to ensure the product is labeled for the intended use.

Grain-based diets

There are many differences between mineral supplements designed for a forage-based versus a grain-based diet. Since grains and most by-product feeds except citrus lurid comprise depression concentrates of calcium, supplements should contain approximately 25 per centum calcium and be fed at a rate of iv ounces per day. Supplemental salt should be provided at ane to ane.9 ounces per 24-hour interval. The primary microminerals of near concern are zinc, copper, cobalt and selenium. Trace mineral common salt is commonly added at 0.5 percentage of the nutrition to provide virtually supplemental trace mineral needs. Selenium may demand to exist added to maintain a total nutrition concentration of 0.1 ppm. Additional phosphorus supplementation is rarely required when feeding grain-based diets.

Table 3. Mineral content of commonly used forages and concentrate feeds.
Feedstuff	Calcium %	Phosphorus %	Potassium %	Sulfur %	Copper, ppm	Zinc, ppm
Bahiagrass Pasture	0.46	0.22	1.45	0.21	8.0	xx.0
Bermudagrass Pasture	0.39	0.26	ane.3	0.28	9.0	20.0
Bermudagrass Hay	0.43	0.20	1.61	0.21	ix.0	20.0
Fescue Pasture	0.51	0.27	2.3	0.19	v.eight	18.7
Fescue Hay	0.51	0.37	2.three	0.xviii	6.0	22.0
Corn	0.03	0.31	0.33	0.14	4.8	sixteen.0
Corn Silage	0.25	0.22	one.14	0.12	four.2	17.vii
Corn Gluten Feed	0.07	0.95	i.40	0.47	7.0	73.3
Cottonseed Meal, 41%	0.20	1.16	ane.65	0.42	sixteen.5	74.0
Whole Cottonseed	0.xvi	0.62	1.22	0.26	7.9	37.vii
Soyhulls	0.53	0.18	1.29	0.xi	17.8	48.0
Soybean Meal, 44%	0.xl	0.71	ii.22	0.46	22.4	57.0
Molasses	ane.00	0.10	four.01	0.47	65.7	21.0
Citrus Pulp	1.88	0.thirteen	0.77	0.08	6.2	15.0
NRC, 1996. Adapted from NRC. Nutrient Requirements of Beefiness Cattle, Sixth Edition.

Table iv. Instance complimentary-option mineral specifications for lactating cows.
Mineral	4 Ounce Intake Per Day
Calcium	10 to 15%
Phosphorus	4 to 8%
Salt	15 to 20%
Magnesium1	1%
Sulfur2	0.5%
Copper	0.12% (1200 ppm)
Zinc	0.3% (3000 ppm)
Cobalt	0.001% (10 ppm)
Iodine	0.008% (80 ppm)
Selenium	0.0026% (26 ppm)
iMagnesium should be increased to at least 10% when grass tetany is a concern iiSulfur supplementation is usually not required, however it is oft added to mineral mixes by the use of sulfate forms of other minerals.

Factors Affecting Mineral Intake

Controlling intake at the desired level is very challenging considering mineral intake fluctuates. Monitor mineral intake for several weeks prior to implementing management practices to alter mineral intake. If mineral intake is besides high or low, move the mineral feeder either closer to or farther away from the h2o source and loafing areas. When cattle are over-consuming mineral, common salt is often added to reduce the amount of minerals cattle eat. Common salt level has a significant touch on on mineral intake and is easily changed to control intake; however, you must business relationship for the additional common salt when determining the correct intake. For instance, if a mineral with a recommended feeding rate of 4 ounces per twenty-four hour period is mixed in a l:l ratio with plain white salt, the cattle should consume viii ounces per day. This would supply the cattle with the targeted amount of 4 ounces of mineral plus four ounces of added salt. When nether-consumption is a problem, try adding stale molasses or change brands to a more palatable mineral. In addition, go along in mind that calves can consume pregnant amounts of mineral and this should exist considered before decreasing the feeding level.

If mineral intake is inadequate, try adding a palatable feedstuff to the mix. Feeds such equally cottonseed meal, soybean meal, dry molasses and distillers grains tin improve mineral intake. Moving the mineral feeder closer to the water source can improve intake. In addition, changing mineral brands will sometimes provide a mineral that is more than palatable.

Regularly monitor mineral consumption past keeping a tape of animate being numbers and feeding amounts to combat potential mineral intake problems.

Mineral Feeders

Mineral feeder placement is a very important part of supplying minerals to the cow herd. Exist sure an acceptable number of feeders are available for the stocking charge per unit of the pasture. A dominion of thumb is to provide one mineral feeding station for every 30 to 50 cows. The best areas to place mineral feeders are near water, in shaded loafing areas and near the best grazing areas. Check feeders at to the lowest degree once a week and keep a make clean, fresh supply of minerals present at all times. A practiced feeder should keep minerals dry, be portable and hold upward to abuse and corrosion. Open tubs are not adequate in the Southeast. Because minerals can exist corrosive to metals, feeders made of woods, fiberglass or plastic ordinarily concluding longer. Permanent mineral feeders made of physical also piece of work well, but portability is a problem.

Supplement Class

Feeding minerals free-selection in a loose mix form is almost desirable for brood cows. For cattle on complete diets, minerals are virtually optimally supplied when mixed in a TMR. When supplementing in a block form, trace minerals must be higher than what is independent in a loose mineral mix, every bit the brute will usually swallow only 1 to 2 ounces per 24-hour interval. In addition, some blocks contain only trace mineralized common salt, which will not meet the animal's requirements for macrominerals such as calcium and phosphorus. Advisedly read the characterization on a block mineral supplement to make sure the product contains all needed minerals. Block minerals are sometimes used when supplementing cattle that accept not had access to minerals for a long menstruum of time. In this state of affairs, cattle will greatly over-consume minerals in a loose mix form if given free-choice access. Blocks can be used for a curt period of time to prevent mineral over-consumption. Do non supply plain white salt and mineral separately since intake of the mineral will probable exist too low because cattle volition crave simply the table salt.

Commercial protein and free energy supplements are sometimes fortified with minerals. Commercial supplements come in the form of dry pelletted feeds, liquid molasses supplements, hard molasses-based blocks, or difficult-pressed grain-based blocks. Information technology is not necessary to provide a gratis-choice mineral supplement along with the commercial protein/energy supplement. Feeding minerals in both the free-option mineral and the protein/energy supplement should not negatively affect functioning, merely it is an expense that could be saved. It may exist necessary to only offer apparently white salt blocks when feeding the commercial poly peptide/energy supplements.

Season

Mineral intake is usually higher when lush forage is bachelor and lower during the autumn or periods of drought. Mineral content and forage digestibility declines with increasing plant maturity. Mature forages are consumed in lower quantity, further reducing mineral intake. Quickly growing, lush forages take a higher availability of minerals compared with mature forages. In addition, mineral content is higher in forages grown on soils with greater fertility. Leap grass is ordinarily well fertilized and highly digestible, which leads to greater intake of mineral from forages and reduced consumption of supplemental mineral during that time of the year.

Feeding Method

Stocker calves are sometimes fed a complete grain- or silage-based ration mixed on the subcontract. Thoroughly mixing minerals in mixed rations is difficult; only a small quantity of mineral is required and it separates easily from the larger particle sizes of grain and forages. It may be wiser to apply a mineral supplement that has a higher feeding rate or feed the mineral costless-option or as a top dress.

A trial was conducted to compare feeding a mineral supplement by costless-pick feeding or tiptop-dressing the mineral on the feed each day. The mineral contained an ionophore (Bovatec®). Results of the trial, in which heifers were fed hay, corn, corn silage and minerals either in a free-option feeder or where supplemental minerals were top-dressed (4 ounces per day) on the feed each day, are shown in Tabular array 5. Supplementing minerals either complimentary-option or top-dressing resulted in like daily gains. Heifers fed minerals free-choice consumed about 0.v ounces per head less than the targeted intake of four ounces per day but were within the range required for the ionophore to be effective. If specific amounts of a particular mineral or feed additive are required per day, it would be desirable to top-dress or mix the mineral into the feed every day rather than permit complimentary-choice consumption. When feeding minerals free-pick, closely monitor mineral consumption to brand sure intake is adequate. This is of item importance when feeding an additive such as an ionophore or antibiotic.

Table 5. Performance of heifers provided supplemental minerals either gratuitous-choice or top dressed onto feed daily.
Item	Costless-choice	Top-dressed
Initial wt, lbs	574	579
Final wt, lbs	736	736
Full gain, lbs	162	157
Daily gain, lbs	1.93	1.87
Mineral intake, ounces/day	3.52	four.00

Bioavailability

Consider the bioavailability of the mineral supplements when purchasing minerals. Bioavailability of sulfates and chlorides is by and large greater than bioavailability of oxides. One exception is magnesium oxide, which is absorbed well enough to be used in beefiness cattle minerals. However, avert mineral supplements that utilise copper oxide, which is poorly absorbed. Iron oxide is also poorly captivated and is more often than not used to add color to the mineral mix. Because of the forages and feedstuffs in Georgia, cattle seldom require iron supplementation, then the addition of iron oxide should non negatively bear upon cattle performance and may be beneficial since iron tin can demark other minerals and forestall their assimilation.

Minerals are ordinarily included in supplements in the inorganic form but may likewise be combined with an amino acrid or poly peptide and fed in the organic form (referred to as complexes, proteinates or chelates). Minerals that are sometimes fed in the organic form include copper, zinc, cobalt and manganese with an amino acid or protein. The relative bioavailability of copper, manganese and zinc from different sources is college compared to inorganic sources as outlined in Table 6.

Organic minerals cost more than inorganic minerals; therefore, an increase in performance must be realized to first the higher purchase price. The response to organic minerals has been variable and they are only recommended in certain situations. Organic minerals have been effective in increasing the reproductive efficiency of young convenance females under nutritional stress, or reducing morbidity and bloodshed of newly weaned calves that are highly susceptible to bovine respiratory disease. For cows, organic minerals are usually fed from two months prior to calving through breeding. For calves, organic minerals are mostly included simply during the preconditioning period. However, zinc methionine may be fed continually during the feeding period to subtract lameness.

Table 6. Relative bioavailability of microminerals from different sourcesi
Mineral	Sulfate-grade	Oxide-class	Carbonate	Chloride-form	Organic-class (complex, chelate)
Copper	100	0	—	105	130
Manganese	100	58	28	—	176
Zinc	100	—	60	twoscore	159 to 206
1Availability relative to that of the sulfate class.Adapted from Greene, 1995.

Identifying a Mineral Deficiency

A mineral deficiency in cattle is difficult to diagnose and can silently rob profits from the herd. Well-nigh deficiencies are related to copper, zinc and selenium, simply other mineral deficiencies tin occur.

Mineral deficiencies are classified as either primary or secondary deficiencies. Principal mineral deficiencies occur when cattle eat forages that are deficient in a detail mineral such as magnesium. Failure to provide a mineral supplement is the well-nigh common cause of principal mineral deficiencies. Main mineral deficiencies rarely occur in well-managed herds that receive mineral supplements.

A secondary mineral deficiency occurs when cattle consume mineral antagonists, which interfere with the normal absorption or metabolism of some other mineral. In the case of copper deficiency, cattle are consuming enough copper to encounter requirements, just some other mineral antagonist such every bit sulfur binds to the copper and prevents it from existence captivated and used by the animal. Secondary mineral deficiencies are the nigh common type of mineral deficiency. Take the following steps to ensure that the trouble is due to a mineral deficiency.

• Outset, rule out other possible causes of poor functioning such as affliction, plant toxins, or inadequate protein and energy in the diet. The first sign of a trouble in most herds is poor reproductive efficiency. Inadequate trunk status, due to poly peptide or energy deficiency, is the most mutual crusade of reproductive failure.
• Monitor mineral intake to ensure cattle are eating the recommended amounts. A recommended intake is usually indicated on the mineral bag.
• Evaluate the trace mineral levels and sources of each trace mineral. Remember that the bioavailability of sulfates and chlorides is generally greater than that of oxides.
• Breed tin also affect the mineral requirements of the cow herd. Simmental and Charolais cattle crave more copper than Angus cattle. Levels may need to be increased 25 to 50 percent for these breeds.
• If a secondary mineral deficiency is suspected, and so a laboratory analysis of forages must be conducted. In some instances, water should be tested if information technology is suspected that it might exist loftier in atomic number 26 or sulfur.
• Blood samples and liver biopsies may too be used to appraise the mineral status of a cow. Liver samples are a more than accurate indicator of mineral condition. These tests are expensive and should exist pursued simply after the higher up steps have been taken.
• Enquire for aid from canton agents, specialists, veterinarians and feed dealers. No 1 person knows all the answers and a team arroyo to solving a mineral problem is often required.

Copper Deficiency

Copper deficiency is an increasing concern in Georgia and other Southeastern states. Copper deficiency causes a wide range of problems such every bit poor hair coat, brittle basic, reduced weight gains and a weakened immune system. The University of Tennessee reported a copper deficiency in as many as 99 percentage of tall fescue fodder samples, and increased deficiency in the fall rather than jump. Results of copper concentrations in forages every bit reported by NRC are presented in Tabular array 7, but actual concentrations vary due to soil type, fertilization and climate. For best results, test forages and feed ingredients.

One of the most visible signs of copper deficiency is change in hair color. Cattle with black pilus will develop a scarlet or greyness tint. Cattle with red hair will go more bleached. Another common problem associated with copper deficiency is lowered immunity. The combination of low copper and high sulfur concentrations in pasture grasses tin can result in copper being deficient even in the nearly well managed herds.

Sulfur antagonisms are the nearly common cause of copper deficiencies in Georgia forages. Results of the NAHMS fodder survey indicated that sulfur concentrations were marginal to high antagonistic in 79 percent of samples. Iron and molybdenum showed marginal to highly antagonistic levels in 13 and 18 percent of samples, respectively. Sulfur is present in all feedstuffs and is incorporated in some mineral supplements. The nigh meaning sources of sulfur are direct supplementation, sulfur-containing fertilizers, water and free energy/poly peptide supplements.

Ammonium sulfate fertilizers are widely available and their utilize is on the ascension. In the past, fertilizers contained small amounts of sulfur. Notwithstanding, modern methods of fertilizer production take eliminated whatsoever sulfur contagion. Therefore, sulfur-containing fertilizers are now being used to supply this important food to pastures. In a University of Florida report, bahiagrass pastures were fertilized with either ammonium sulfate or ammonium nitrate to provide threescore pounds of nitrogen per acre. Ammonium sulfate increased forage yield in one of three years but increased constitute sulfur levels to 0.fifty percent. Sulfur becomes a problem when the concentration reaches or exceeds 0.35 per centum. Liver copper concentrations in cows grazing pastures fertilized with ammonium sulfate were considered deficient, simply were acceptable in cows that grazed forages non fertilized with ammonium sulfate. In addition, use of poultry litter equally a fertilizer will also elevate forage sulfur levels.

Simply providing more copper in the mineral supplement may not meliorate copper status, considering as long as sulfur is present in excessive amounts in the forage, copper absorption will exist decreased. If sulfur levels are borderline loftier (0.35 percent sulfur), then it can be helpful to increment copper concentrations upwardly to 2,500 ppm. In the Florida study, fifty-fifty though the cows were copper deficient, no signs of deficiency or poor performance were noted. Many times, copper deficiencies do non show up until calves become sick later on weaning and shipping. In a separate study, cows scarce in copper were able to rapidly replenish their liver copper concentrations to adequate levels when fed a depression-sulfur diet.

Certain energy and protein supplements tin as well contribute meaning amounts of dietary sulfur. Feedstuffs that comprise sulfur in combative amounts include corn gluten feed, corn gluten meal, distillers grains, molasses, soybean meal and cottonseed meal. Poly peptide supplements are fed in small amounts, and then sulfur concentration is diluted by the remainder of the diet. Molasses-based supplements are commonly used in wintertime feeding programs. The Academy of Florida has conducted studies to examine the outcome of molasses on copper absorption in grazing heifers. The researchers compared a corn-based supplement to a molasses-based supplement. Aggregating of copper in the liver increased by 46 percentage for heifers fed the corn-based supplement, but decreased nine per centum for heifers fed the molasses-based supplement. Absorption of other microminerals (zinc, iron, manganese) was not afflicted by supplement blazon.

Most high-sulfur feeds are only consumed during the winter feeding period and should not significantly touch on copper status. Cattle are able to utilize copper stored in the liver during the grazing flavour, which should reduce the problem of depletion during the winter feeding period. Sulfur from pasture and hay is the principal cause of copper deficiency because they are consumed year-effectually. The but concern for winter feeding is when cattle have been on pastures that are high in sulfur or are being fed hay that has sulfur levels combative to mineral absorption. Consider feeding low-sulfur feeds during the pre-conditioning period, especially if your cattle take had wellness problems in the by when fed high-sulfur feeds.

Table vii. Classification of micro elements in fodder relative to their abilities to meet either dietary requirements or cause an antagonistic problem with copper.
Microminerals	Scarce	Marginally Deficient	Acceptable	MTCi
Aluminum (ppm)	—	—	—	grand
Copper (ppm)	<4	4 to 9.9	due east"10	100
Manganese (ppm)	<20	twenty to 39.9	due east"40	m
Zinc (ppm)	<20	twenty to 29.9	e"30	500
Selenium (ppm)	<100	100 to 199.9	200	2000
Copper:Mo ratio	<four:1	4.0 to iv.5:one	>4.5 to 5:i	—
aneMaximum Tolerable Concentration — Source: NAHMS, 1999

Summary

Mineral and vitamin nutrition is vital to overall herd wellness and reproductive efficiency. Calcium, phosphorus and salt are about likely to be the most limiting macrominerals in cattle diets. Magnesium may be a problem during late winter or early on spring, especially in mature lactating cows. Secondary mineral deficiencies are an increasing concern because of increasing sulfur concentrations in homegrown feeds. A clear diagnosis of a mineral deficiency should exist established before making drastic changes in a direction or mineral program. Vitamins A, D and Eastward are the only vitamins that may be deficient in beef cattle diets. Controlling daily intake is a constant challenge, but several management strategies tin be used to ensure proper daily intake of minerals and vitamins.

Literature Cited

Arthington, J.D., and C.Thousand. Swenson. 2004. Furnishings of trace mineral source and feeding method on the productivity of grazing Braford cows. Prof. Anim. Sci. twenty:155-161.

Arthington, J.D., and F.M. Pate. 2002. Effect of corn- versus molasses-based supplements on trace mineral absorption in beef heifers. J. Anim. Sci. lxxx:2787-2791.

Arthington, J.D., J.E. Rechcigl, 1000.P. Yost, 50.R. McDowell, and G.D. Fanning. 2002. Effect of ammonium sulfate fertilization on bahiagrass quality and copper metabolism in grazing beef cattle. J. Anim. Sci. fourscore:2507-2512.

Gadberry, South. 2004. Mineral and vitamin supplementation of beefiness cows in Arkansas. Univ. of Arkansas Extension. FSA:3035

Gill, W., C. Lane, J. Neel, and A. Fisher. 2004. Mineral nutrition of beef cattle. Univ. of Tennessee Extension. PB:1749.

Greene, Fifty.Due west. 1995. The nutritional value of inorganic and organic mineral sources. Update of mineral nutrition of beefiness cattle. San Antonio, TX. In: Proc. Plains Nutr. Quango Symp. Pp 23-32.

Unhurt, C., and K.C. Olson. 2001. Mineral supplements for beef cattle. Univ. of Missouri Extension. G2081.

Mortimor, R.G., D.A. Dargatz, and L.R. Corah. 1999. Forage Assay from moo-cow/calf herds in 23 states. Fort Collins, CO. USDA:APHIS:VS, Centers for Epidemiology and Animal Health. #N303.499.

Nutrient requirements of beefiness cattle. 1996. Washington, D.C. National Enquiry Quango.

Ward, J.D., J.Westward.Spears, and Thou.P. Gengelbach. 1995. Differences in copper condition and copper metabolism amid Angus, Simmental, and Charolais cattle. J. Anim. Sci. 73:571.

---

Status and Revision History
Published on Jan 04, 2007
Published on Feb 04, 2009
In Review on Jan 05, 2010
Published on Feb 16, 2010
Published with Full Review on Mar 14, 2013
Published with Full Review on Mar 31, 2017

kingruital72.blogspot.com

Source: https://extension.uga.edu/publications/detail.html?number=B895&title=Mineral+Supplements+for+Beef+Cattle

Share this post